1. Syntax (वाक्य-विन्यास)
English Definition:
Syntax is the branch of grammar that studies how words are arranged to form correct sentences.
Hindi Definition:
सिंटैक्स (वाक्य-विन्यास) व्याकरण की वह शाखा है जो यह अध्ययन करती है कि शब्दों को सही वाक्य बनाने के लिए किस प्रकार व्यवस्थित किया जाता है।
Examples:
1. She is reading a book.
2. They play football every Sunday.
3. I have finished my homework.
4. The children are sleeping.
5. We will meet tomorrow.
2. Semantics (अर्थविज्ञान)
English Definition:
Semantics is the branch of linguistics that studies the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences.
Hindi Definition:
सीमांटिक्स (अर्थविज्ञान) भाषाविज्ञान की वह शाखा है जो शब्दों, वाक्यांशों और वाक्यों के अर्थ का अध्ययन करती है।
Examples:
1. Child and kid
2. Begin and start
3. Cold (low temperature)
4. Bank (financial institution)
5. Bright (intelligent)
3. Phonology (ध्वनिविज्ञान)
English Definition:
Phonology is the study of how speech sounds are organized and used in a particular language.
Hindi Definition:
फोनोलॉजी (ध्वनिविज्ञान) किसी भाषा में ध्वनियों की व्यवस्था, उनके नियमों और उनके प्रयोग का अध्ययन है।
Examples:
1. /p/ and /b/ in pin and bin
2. /k/ in cat
3. Silent "k" in know
4. Stress in 'record (noun) and re'cord (verb)
5. Plural pronunciation:
/s/ in cats
/z/ in dogs
/ɪz/ in buses
4. Phonetics (स्वनविज्ञान)
English Definition:
Phonetics is the study of the physical production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds.
Hindi Definition:
फोनेटिक्स (स्वनविज्ञान) बोली जाने वाली ध्वनियों के उच्चारण, उनके प्रसारण तथा उन्हें सुनने की प्रक्रिया का अध्ययन है।
Examples:
1. /p/ in pen
2. /t/ in top
3. /m/ in man
4. /ʃ/ in ship
5. /θ/ in think
5. Morphology (रूपविज्ञान)
English Definition:
Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how they are formed from morphemes.
Hindi Definition:
मॉर्फोलॉजी (रूपविज्ञान) शब्दों की संरचना तथा उनके मोर्फीमों से बनने की प्रक्रिया का अध्ययन है।
Examples:
1. unhappy = un + happy
2. teacher = teach + er
3. kindness = kind + ness
4. replay = re + play
5. books = book + s
6. Capitonyms (अक्षर-परिवर्तन से अर्थ बदलने वाले शब्द)
English Definition:
Capitonyms are words whose meanings and sometimes pronunciations change when the capitalization changes.
Hindi Definition:
कैपिटोनिम वे शब्द हैं जिनका अर्थ और कभी-कभी उच्चारण बड़े अक्षर (capital letter) के प्रयोग से बदल जाता है।
Examples:
1. polish – to make something shiny (चमकाना)
Polish – relating to Poland (पोलैंड का)
2. march – to walk like soldiers (कदमताल करना)
March – the third month (मार्च)
3. turkey – a large bird (टर्की पक्षी)
Turkey – a country (तुर्की)
4. china – porcelain dishes (चीनी मिट्टी के बर्तन)
China – a country (चीन)
5. earth – soil or ground (मिट्टी)
Earth – the planet we live on (पृथ्वी)
7. Contronyms (विपरीतार्थक-स्वयं शब्द)
English Definition:
Contronyms are words that have two opposite or contradictory meanings.
Hindi Definition:
कॉन्ट्रोनिम ऐसे शब्द होते हैं जिनके दो परस्पर विपरीत अर्थ होते हैं।
Examples:
1. Sanction
to approve or permit (अनुमति देना)
to punish or impose a penalty (दंड देना)
2. Dust
to remove dust (धूल साफ़ करना)
to add or sprinkle fine powder (धूल/पाउडर छिड़कना)
3. Clip
to attach or fasten (जोड़ना)
to cut off or trim (काटना)
4. Left
departed or went away (चला गया)
remaining (बचा हुआ)
5. Bolt
to fasten or lock (कुंडी लगाना)
to run away suddenly (अचानक भाग जाना)
8. Palindromes (समदिश शब्द)
English Definition:
Palindromes are words or phrases that read the same forwards and backwards.
Hindi Definition:
पैलिन्ड्रोम ऐसे शब्द या वाक्यांश होते हैं जिन्हें आगे या पीछे से पढ़ने पर एक जैसा पढ़ा जाता है।
Examples:
1. madam
2. level
3. radar
4. civic
5. refer
9. Pangrams (सर्वाक्षरी वाक्य)
English Definition:
A pangram is a sentence that contains every letter of the alphabet at least once.
Hindi Definition:
पैंग्राम ऐसा वाक्य होता है जिसमें वर्णमाला का प्रत्येक अक्षर कम-से-कम एक बार आता है।
Examples:
1. The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
2. Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs.
3. How vexingly quick daft zebras jump!
4. Sphinx of black quartz, judge my vow.
5. Waltz, bad nymph, for quick jigs vex.
10. Paronyms (समानरूपी शब्द)
English Definition:
Paronyms are words that are similar in spelling or pronunciation but have different meanings.
Hindi Definition:
पैरोनिम ऐसे शब्द होते हैं जिनकी वर्तनी या उच्चारण मिलते-जुलते होते हैं, लेकिन उनके अर्थ अलग होते हैं।
Examples:
1. affect – effect
2. accept – except
3. adapt – adopt
4. personal – personnel
5. eminent – imminent
11. Morphemes (रूपिम)
English Definition:
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a word.
Hindi Definition:
मॉर्फीम (रूपिम) शब्द की सबसे छोटी अर्थपूर्ण इकाई होती है।
Examples:
1. cats = cat + s [two morphemes]
2. unhappy = un + happy [two morphemes]
3. teacher = teach + er [two morphemes]
4. unbearable = un+ bear+ able [three morphemes]
5. disrespectful = dis+ respect+ ful [three morphemes]
12. Graphemes (लिपिम)
English Definition:
A grapheme is the smallest unit of a writing system that represents a sound or meaning.
Hindi Definition:
ग्रैफीम (लिपिम) किसी लेखन प्रणाली की सबसे छोटी लिखित इकाई होती है जो किसी ध्वनि या अर्थ का प्रतिनिधित्व करती है।
Examples:
1. a
2. b
3. sh
4. ch
5. th
13. Linguist (भाषाविज्ञ)
English Definition:
A linguist is a person who studies language scientifically, including its structure, sounds, meaning, and use.
Hindi Definition:
भाषाविज्ञ (Linguist) वह व्यक्ति होता है जो भाषा का वैज्ञानिक रूप से अध्ययन करता है, जैसे उसकी संरचना, ध्वनियाँ, अर्थ और प्रयोग।
Examples of Linguists:
1. Noam Chomsky
2. Ferdinand de Saussure
3. Leonard Bloomfield
4. William Labov
5. David Crystal
14. Subject:
It is the part of a clause or a sentence that does something or about which some information is given. / जो कुछ करता है या जिसके बारे में बात होती है subject कहलाता है।
e.g. Mohan teaches maths. (Subject= Mohan)
e.g. She runs fast. (Subject= She)
e.g. Rohan is a doctor. (Subject= Rohan)
e.g. He is innocent. (Subject= He)
e.g. Get out. (Subject= you, क्योंकि यह एक Imperative sentence है जिसमें subject "you" होता है जो बोला नहीं जाता है या दिखाई नहीं पड़ता है।)
e.g. Don't sit here. (Subject= you, क्योंकि यह एक Imperative sentence है जिसमें subject "you" होता है जो बोला नहीं जाता है या दिखाई नहीं पड़ता है।)
e.g. Where are they? (Subject= they)
e.g. She and I help each other. (Subject= she and I)
e.g. Under the table is sitting a cat. (Subject= cat क्योंकि सामान्य वाक्य "A cat is sitting under the table." में inversion का नियम लगाकर शब्दों का क्रम बदल दिया है। जब Inversion टॉपिक पढ़ाया जायेगा तब इसको डिटेल में डिस्कस करेंगे।)
e.g. Away went Sumit. (Subject= Sumit, क्योंकि सामान्य वाक्य "Sumit went away." में inversion का नियम लगाकर शब्दों का क्रम बदल दिया है। जब Inversion टॉपिक पढ़ाया जायेगा तब इसको डिटेल में डिस्कस करेंगे।)
e.g. There is a man. (Subject= man) वाक्य की शुरुआत adverb "there" या "here" से हो तो subject "verb" के बाद मौजूद noun या pronoun होता है। Verb भी इन noun या pronoun पर निर्भर करती है।
e.g. She was beaten by him. (Subject= she) यह एक passive voice sentence है, और इसमें दिख रहा subject वही है जिस पर verb निर्भर करती है। "She" की जगह "They" होता तो plural verb आती।
15. Predicate:
The part of a clause or a sentence that tells us something about its subject is known as the predicate. It has at least one finite verb./ किसी clause या sentence का वह हिस्सा जो subject के बारे में कुछ बताये predicate कहलाता है। इसमें कम से कम एक finite verb होती है।
e.g. I work under him. (Predicate= work under him)
e.g. She is running fast. (Predicate= is running fast)
e.g. He was a great dancer. (Predicate= was a great dancer)
e.g. Mohan was not interested in my book. (Predicate= was not interested in my book)
e.g. He and she are partners. (Predicate= are partners)
e.g. You, he and I need to be careful. (Predicate= need to be careful)
e.g. Come here. (Predicate= come here)
e.g. Don't laugh. (Predicate= don't laugh)
e.g. I ate food and drank water. (Predicate= ate food and drank water)
e.g. Down goes the boxer. (Predicate= down goes, क्योंकि सामान्य वाक्य "The boxer goes down." में inversion का नियम लगाकर शब्दों का क्रम बदल दिया है। जब Inversion टॉपिक पढ़ाया जायेगा तब इसको डिटेल में डिस्कस करेंगे।)
16. Object:
A person or a thing that is affected by the action of the verb or that receives something is known as its object.
कोई व्यक्ति या वस्तु जिस पर verb प्रभाव डाले object कहलाता है। (कई बार वाक्य में object नहीं होता है, जैसे He is sleeping right now./ She sang well.)
e.g. She helped me./ e.g. He ignored my comments./ e.g. He gave me food./ e.g. He gave food to me.
Types of object:
1. Direct object/ 2. Indirect object
Direct object (DO):
It can be identified by asking the question ‘what’./ यह object "क्या" का उत्तर देता है। e.g. He gave me food./ He gave food to me. (Food= Direct object)
Indirect object (IO):
To identify an indirect object, you can ask the question ‘for whom’ and ‘to whom’./ यह "किसे" या "किसको" जैसे प्रश्न का उत्तर देता है।
e.g. He gave me food./ He gave food to me. (Me= Indirect object)
e.g. He gave me food./ He gave food to me.
क्या दिया= food (Direct object)/ किसे दिया= me (Indirect object)
किन्तु यदि वाक्य में एक object हो तो वह हमेशा direct object कहलाता है।
e.g. She helped me. (Direct object= me)
e.g. He ignored my comments. (Direct object= my comments)
17. Verbs:
सभी verbs को निम्नलिखित दो भागों में बाँट सकते हैं:
A.Helping verbs या Auxiliary verbs
B.Main verbs या Lexical verbs या Full verbs या Principal verbs
A. Helping verbs:
जो verb किसी और verb की हेल्प कर रही हो, Helping verb या Auxiliary verb कहलाती है।
e.g. 1.He has broken the door. (Has= helping verb)/ e.g. 2.She is writing a letter. (Is= helping verb)
e.g. 3.I was sleeping. (Was= helping verb)/ e.g. 4.They don't know me. (Do= helping verb)
B. Main verbs:
जो verb किसी और verb की हेल्प नहीं कर रही हो, अकेले स्टैंड कर रही हो या किसी helping verb से केवल support ले रही हो Main verb या Lexical verb या Full verb या Principal verb कहलाती है। यह verb वाक्य के action (कार्य) के बारे में बताती है।
[Helping verb का वाक्य में खुद का कोई अर्थ नहीं होता है।]
e.g. 5.He has broken the door. (Broken= main verb/ Has= helping verb)
e.g. 6.She is writing a letter. (Writing= main verb/ Is= helping verb)
e.g. 7.I was sleeping. (Sleeping= main verb/ Was= helping verb)
e.g. 8.They don't know me. (Know= main verb/ Do= helping verb)
e.g. 9.He has a smartphone. (Has= main verb)
e.g. 10.She is my cousin. (Is= main verb)
e.g. 11.I was at home. (Was= main verb)
e.g. 12.They do hard work. (Do= main verb)
नोट- Primary verbs, जैसे 🖋️ Be= is/ am/ are/ was/ were/ being/ been 🖋️ Do= does/ did🖋️ Have= has/ had, ऊपर दिये लॉजिक के अनुसार, किसी वाक्य में helping verbs तथा किसी अन्य वाक्य में main verbs हो सकती हैं।
18. Clause:
A group of words comprising a subject and a finite verb is known as a clause. A sentence has at least one clause.
शब्दों का समूह जिसमें subject+ finite verb का एक कॉम्बिनेशन हो clause कहलाता है। Sentence में एक clause का होना आवश्यक है।
e.g. I know him. (1 sentence/ 1 clause)// e.g. I know what you do. (1 sentence/ 2 clauses)
19. Phrase:
A group of words or a fixed expression without a subject and a finite verb is known as a phrase.
शब्दों का समूह जिसमें subject+ finite verb न हो phrase कहलाता है।
e.g. In the night/ e.g. At noon/ e.g. On purpose/ e.g. At large
20. Idiom:
A group of words in a fixed order which has a particular meaning different from the collective meaning of the words is known as an idiom.
एक निश्चित क्रम में मौजूद शब्दों का समूह जिसका वास्तविक अर्थ उसके शब्दों द्वारा दर्शाये जाने वाले अर्थ से अलग हो idiom कहलाता है।
e.g. Beat around the bush= मुख्य टॉपिक से हटकर कोई और बात करना
e.g. On cloud nine= बहुत खुश होना
21. Proverb:
A well-known saying that tells us about a truth or gives us some moral advice is known as a proverb.
कोई मशहूर कहावत जो हमको या तो किसी सत्य के बारे में बताये या कोई नैतिक ज्ञान दे proverb कहलाती है।
e.g. Fortune favours the brave.= किस्मत बहादुरों का साथ देती है।
e.g. Better late than never.= दुर्घटना से देर भली
22. Assertive sentences:
A sentence that gives us information is known as an assertive sentence. It ends with a full stop.
वाक्य जो हमको कोई जानकारी देता है assertive sentence कहलाता है।
e.g. He is rich./ e.g. He is not rich./ e.g. She was an officer./ e.g. She was not an officer./ e.g. Mohan works hard./ e.g. Mohan doesn't work hard./ e.g. I need some time. / e.g. I don't need any time.
#There are two types of assertive sentences:
A.Affirmative sentences/ B.Negative sentences
A.Affirmative sentence:
An affirmative sentence expresses a fact or an idea without the use of negative words or phrases. / सकारात्मक जानकारी देने वाले वाक्य assertive sentences कहलाते हैं।
e.g. He is rich. / e.g. She was an officer./ e.g. Mohan works hard./ e.g. I need some time.
B.Negative sentence:
A negative statement expresses that something is not true or does not exist. Words such as 'no', 'never', 'not' etc. are used in these sentences./ नकारात्मक जानकारी देने वाले वाक्य negative sentences कहलाते हैं। इन वाक्यों में 'no', 'never', 'not' इत्यादि शब्दों का प्रयोग करते हैं!
e.g. He is not rich./ e.g. She was not an officer./ e.g. Mohan doesn't work hard./ e.g. I don't need any time./ e.g. He never came to me for help./ e.g. She has no manners.
23. Main Verbs (Lexical Verbs / Full Verbs / Principal Verbs)
English:
A main verb is a verb that expresses the main action, event, or state in a sentence.
Hindi:
Main verb वह verb होती है जो वाक्य के मुख्य कार्य, घटना या अवस्था को व्यक्त करती है।
Examples:
eat, write, play, sing, run
24. Auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs)
English:
An auxiliary verb is a verb that helps the main verb express tense, voice, mood, aspect, or emphasis.
Hindi:
Auxiliary verb (Helping verb) वह verb होती है जो मुख्य verb की सहायता करती है।
Examples:
is, am, have, do, will
25. Stative Verbs
English:
A stative verb expresses a state, feeling, opinion, possession, or condition rather than an action.
Hindi:
Stative verb वह verb होती है जो अवस्था, भावना, विचार, स्वामित्व या स्थिति को व्यक्त करती है।
Examples:
know, believe, own, love, seem
26. Dynamic Verbs (Action Verbs)
English:
A dynamic verb expresses an action, activity, or process.
Hindi:
Dynamic verb वह verb होती है जो किसी कार्य, गतिविधि या प्रक्रिया को व्यक्त करती है।
Examples:
run, swim, write, dance, jump
27. Transitive Verbs
English:
A transitive verb requires a direct object to complete its meaning.
Hindi:
Transitive verb वह verb होती है जिसे अपना अर्थ पूरा करने के लिए direct object की आवश्यकता होती है।
Examples:
buy, open, write, eat, build
28. Intransitive Verbs
English:
An intransitive verb does not require a direct object.
Hindi:
Intransitive verb वह verb होती है जिसे direct object की आवश्यकता नहीं होती।
Examples:
sleep, laugh, arrive, cry, fall
29. Ditransitive Verbs
English:
A ditransitive verb takes two objects: a direct object and an indirect object.
Hindi:
Ditransitive verb वह verb होती है जो एक direct object और एक indirect object लेती है।
Examples:
give, send, offer, teach, lend
30. Finite Verbs
English:
A finite verb shows tense and agrees with the subject.
Hindi:
Finite verb वह verb होती है जो tense बताती है और subject के अनुसार बदलती है।
Examples:
writes, wrote, is, have, were
31. Non-finite Verbs
English:
A non-finite verb does not show tense or agree with the subject.
Hindi:
Non-finite verb वह verb होती है जो tense नहीं बताती और subject के अनुसार नहीं बदलती।
Examples:
to write, writing, written, having finished, to be written
32. Linking Verbs (Copular Verbs)
English:
A linking verb connects the subject to a subject complement.
Hindi:
Linking verb वह verb होती है जो subject को उसके complement से जोड़ती है।
Examples:
be, become, seem, appear, remain
33. Regular Verbs
English:
A regular verb forms its past tense and past participle by adding -ed or -d.
Hindi:
Regular verb वह verb होती है जिसका Past Tense और Past Participle -ed या -d जोड़कर बनता है।
Examples:
work, play, clean, watch, open
34. Irregular Verbs
English:
An irregular verb forms its past tense and past participle in ways other than adding -ed.
Hindi:
Irregular verb वह verb होती है जिसका Past Tense और Past Participle -ed जोड़कर नहीं बनता।
Examples:
go, eat, write, sing, break
35. Causative Verbs
English:
A causative verb shows that someone causes another person to do something.
Hindi:
Causative verb वह verb होती है जो बताती है कि कोई व्यक्ति किसी दूसरे से कोई कार्य करवाता है।
Causative verbs: Make, have, get, let, help, allow, permit, enable, force, compel, require, order, command, instruct, direct, tell, ask, persuade, convince, encourage, urge, remind, advise, warn, request, invite, expect, appoint, assign, authorize, hire, employ, engage, send, leave, keep, drive, push, pull, tempt, inspire, motivate, prompt, stimulate, provoke, influence, pressure, oblige, induce, cause
He made me dance.
She let me work.
Mohan got me beaten
She forced me to work.
I order him to leave
36. Ergative Verbs
English:
An ergative verb can be used both transitively and intransitively without changing its meaning.
Hindi:
Ergative verb वह verb होती है जो transitive और intransitive दोनों रूपों में प्रयोग की जा सकती है।
Examples:
break, bend, boil, bounce, brust, burn, burst, change, close, collapse, cool, crack, curl, cut, decrease, dissolve, double, dry, empty, end, explode, fade, finish, fold, freeze, grow, harden, heat, improve, increase, melt, move, open, overflow, overturn, ring, roll, rotate, scatter, shake, shatter, shut, sink, slide, slow, snap, soften, split, spread, start, stop, stretch, swing, tear, tighten, topple, touch, turn, upset, wake, warm, wide
37. Factitive Verbs
English:
A factitive verb takes an object and an object complement, causing the object to become something.
Hindi:
Factitive verb वह verb होती है जो object के साथ object complement लेती है और object की नई अवस्था बताती है।
Examples:
make, elect, appoint, call, name
38. Phrasal Verbs
English:
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and one or more particles that together have a special meaning.
Hindi:
Phrasal verb एक verb और एक या अधिक particles से मिलकर बनती है, जिनका अर्थ अलग होता है।
Examples:
give up, look after, put off, take off, break down
39. Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs
English:
A phrasal-prepositional verb consists of a verb, an adverb, and a preposition.
Hindi:
Phrasal-prepositional verb एक verb, एक adverb और एक preposition से मिलकर बनती है।
Examples:
put up with, look forward to, come up with, get away with, catch up with
40. Reciprocal Verbs
English:
A reciprocal verb expresses an action done mutually by two or more people.
Hindi:
Reciprocal verb वह verb होती है जो दो या अधिक व्यक्तियों द्वारा एक-दूसरे के प्रति किए गए कार्य को व्यक्त करती है।
Examples:
meet, marry, fight, hug, kiss
41. Reflexive Verbs
English:
A reflexive verb is a verb whose action is performed by the subject on itself.
Hindi:
Reflexive verb वह verb होती है जिसका कार्य subject स्वयं अपने ऊपर करता है।
Examples:
wash, shave, dress, introduce, hurt
42. Inchoative Verbs
English:
An inchoative verb expresses the beginning of a state or action.
Hindi:
Inchoative verb वह verb होती है जो किसी कार्य या अवस्था की शुरुआत को व्यक्त करती है।
Examples:
begin, start, become, grow, awaken
43. Terminative Verbs
English:
A terminative verb expresses the completion or end of an action or event.
Hindi:
Terminative verb वह verb होती है जो किसी कार्य या घटना के समाप्त होने या पूर्ण होने को व्यक्त करती है।
Examples:
finish, end, stop, complete, conclude
44. Durative Verbs
English:
A durative verb expresses an action or state that continues over a period of time.
Hindi:
Durative verb वह verb होती है जो किसी कार्य या अवस्था के कुछ समय तक चलते रहने को व्यक्त करती है।
Examples:
live, sleep, wait, study, work
45. Punctual Verbs
English:
A punctual verb expresses an action that happens instantly or at a single point in time.
Hindi:
Punctual verb वह verb होती है जो किसी क्षण में होने वाले कार्य को व्यक्त करती है।
Examples:
hit, knock, blink, clap, snap
46. Avalent Verbs
English:
An avalent verb does not require a real subject.
Hindi:
Avalent verb वह verb होती है जिसे किसी वास्तविक subject की आवश्यकता नहीं होती।
Examples:
rain, snow, hail, drizzle, thunder
Example Sentences:
It rains.
It snowed.
It hailed.
It drizzled.
It thundered.
47. Monovalent Verbs
English:
A monovalent verb takes only one argument (the subject).
Hindi:
Monovalent verb वह verb होती है जो केवल एक argument अर्थात् subject लेती है।
Examples:
sleep, laugh, arrive, cry, die
48. Bivalent Verbs
English:
A bivalent verb takes two arguments, usually a subject and a direct object.
Hindi:
Bivalent verb वह verb होती है जो दो arguments लेती है, सामान्यतः एक subject और एक direct object।
Examples:
eat, buy, open, read, love
49. Trivalent Verbs
English:
A trivalent verb takes three arguments, usually a subject, an indirect object, and a direct object.
Hindi:
A trivalent verb में तीन participants होते हैं, सामान्यतः एक subject, एक indirect object और एक direct object।
Examples:
give, send, lend, offer, teach
50. Catenative verbs
A catenative verb is a verb that is followed by another verb to complete its meaning.
Pattern:
• Subject + Catenative Verb + Verb
Examples:
• I want to leave.
• She enjoys reading.
• They decided to stay.
• He kept talking.
• We hope to win.
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